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In nature, orange is somewhat of a mating color—one that alerts members of the animal kingdom to go with the flow of their reproductive urges. For example, exaggerated orange features of Japanese medakas have been preferentially selected by female fish. Similarly, female guppies are more attracted to orange spots on their mates. Although these traits have evolved for better mating success, the orange pigments some animals possess may be from their carotenoid-rich diets. Incidentally, carotenoids promote male and female reproductive function.
In psychology and human health, the color orange is often associated with enthusiasm, playfulness, warmth, friendliness, and vibrancy. It can also represent the dynamic flow of the reproductive system, creation, growth, and emotions. Exposure to red-orange light, for example, can induce a variety of emotions, including pleasure, relaxation, stability, irritation, and anxiety.
Although exposure to orange can bring about emotions connected to reproduction and creativity, consuming orange-pigmented foods may also affect other aspects of women’s health. Diet is considered a cornerstone for women’s reproductive and sexual health, with a wide impact on other relevant areas, including cardiometabolic, mental, and gastrointestinal health. A plant-forward approach (e.g., Mediterranean Diet) is often considered beneficial for the prevention and treatment of certain diseases in women. One orange-pigmented carotenoid, beta-cryptoxanthin, may be an under-utilized antioxidant in fertility, fetal cognitive development, disease prevention, and more.
What is Beta-Cryptoxanthin (BC)?
Most people know about beta-carotene but don’t know much about the other 700+ carotenoids. Carotenoids are the bioactive nutrients found in red, orange, and yellow plant foods, with the most common coming from beta-carotene, alpha-carotene, beta-cryptoxanthin (BC), lycopene, lutein, and zeaxanthin. Humans cannot produce carotenoids but have evolved to accumulate them from their diet. Carotenoid compounds are fat-soluble antioxidants stored under the skin and in the belly (i.e., areas where fat is found in the body).
Carotenoids have potent antioxidant activity that can neutralize free radicals before they cause damage to cells in the body, including cells that make up the tissues of the organs in the reproductive system. Regular consumption of carotenoid-rich foods has been shown to improve cognitive decline in adults, lower the risk of osteoporosis, support fetal brain and retina development in pregnancy, and improve fertility.
While carotenoids contribute several benefits to human health, BC has yet to take center stage for its benefits to women’s health. Specifically, BC has been linked to reducing ovarian decline and the risk of endometriosis. It is also localized in human ovaries, along with 13 other carotenoids, and may protect against ovarian cancers. Additionally, BC plays a role in bone health and healthy body composition. Because women’s health expands far beyond fertility throughout the lifespan, BC is worth further exploration.
Ovarian Health and Function
The ovaries are the reproductive organs in females that produce eggs and hormones. They play an important role in menstruation, fertility, and pregnancy. Because of their wide-ranging functions, their health is important to maintain.
As women age, their ovaries stop producing hormones and eggs and eventually shrink in size. This change in function is one of the signs of perimenopause. Some women may be concerned about heading prematurely into perimenopause, the phase of life when progesterone production begins to wane and menstrual cycles become irregular. However, there is some indication that the foods a person eats may influence the decline of ovaries.
An older study on 1,146 pre-menopausal women found that the onset of natural menopause was correlated with dietary intake of the carotenoid pigment, BC (p < 0.001), and fruit (p = 0.01), even after adjusting for other factors (e.g., parity, BMI, physical activity level, education, smoking, energy, and alcohol intake). Statistically, both BC and fruit intake were associated with a significant delay in the onset of natural menopause. The researchers concluded that a BC-rich diet (i.e., ~400 micrograms BC/day from oranges, mandarins, and peaches) could significantly delay ovarian senescence by 1.3 years. However, a newer study on aged Wistar rats does not support the finding that BC can help delay the onset of menopause. Despite the more recent findings, BC may reduce ovarian decline. More research is required to understand if BC can delay menopause, especially to prolong fertility.
Beyond its role in ovarian function, BC may also provide chemopreventive benefits. One older case-control study on 254 patients with ovarian cancer found that carotenoid (alpha-carotene, beta-carotene, BC, lutein, and zeaxanthin) consumption was positively correlated with a reduced risk of developing ovarian cancer. The protective benefits are likely achieved through the antioxidant effects of carotenoids. However, more research is required to understand how individual carotenoids reduce ovarian cancer risk.
Menstrual Health
Nearly 14-25% of women of childbearing age experience menstrual cycle irregularities. Not only will menstrual irregularities disrupt fertility but also affect quality of life. Because of this, researchers suggest viewing the menstrual cycle as an additional vital sign.
Endometriosis is one such disease that is characterized by dysmenorrhea, severe pelvic pain, constipation, painful urination, and fertility complications. Researchers have speculated that inflammation and oxidative stress are factors in endometriosis. Interestingly, one study from 2018 found that individuals who consumed more fruit had a lower risk of endometriosis. The BC content in these fruits was considered the reason for this observation.
Premenstrual symptoms (PMS) may also be affected by the consumption of BC-rich foods. Specifically, one study investigated PMS severity in relation to serum carotenoid levels in 553 women. While researchers did not find any associations between PMS (e.g., physical, behavioral, and psychological symptoms) and other carotenoids, they did find that high serum BC was associated with an increased appetite. Some women may find this undesirable, but for those who lose their appetite due to PMS, this would be a benefit and improve energy intake during the luteal phase.
Bone Health
Menopause is associated with a loss in bone mineral density. The reasons for this include lower estradiol and higher follicle-stimulating hormone. Because bone loss increases the risk of developing osteoporosis, fractures, and a reduced quality of life, bone loss prevention is essential.
There is evidence that consuming BC from foods and supplements significantly reduces the risk of osteoporosis (p = 0.0002). Individuals consuming the highest amounts of BC showed the greatest prevention. For example, a prospective cohort study on 187 post-menopausal women found that high (1.88-10.53 uM) versus low (0.24-1.84 uM) BC consumption had a lower odds ratio for developing osteoporosis. Researchers also found that higher intakes of BC with vitamin C were inversely associated with osteoporosis.
One older rat study found that supplementing with BC could help prevent bone loss. Ovariectomized rats were given 5 or 10 micrograms per 100 grams body weight BC from Satsuma mandarins for 3 months. BC administration prevented complications caused by the ovariectomy, such as weight gain, decreased calcium content, and reduced alkaline phosphatase activity. As such, supplementing with BC may have a preventive effect on bone loss.
There are a few possible explanations of the mechanism of action of BC for bone density. BC supplementation promotes osteoblastogenesis, prevents osteoclastic bone resorption, induces osteoblast differentiation, and inhibits nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) activity. By supporting these processes, BC improves bone health by preventing bone loss and promoting bone mineral density.
Body Composition
Undesirable changes to body weight and body composition are among the many changes women may experience during menopause. These changes happen due to a shift in hormones and sleep patterns, which can increase visceral fat, especially around the abdomen. Because these changes can increase the risk of developing cardiovascular diseases, individuals may seek dietary approaches to prevent increased body fat.
Interestingly, there is evidence that a higher intake of BC is associated with a lower body fat percentage. An older cross-sectional study from 2017 assessed the dietary patterns, body composition, and lifestyle of 88 women (ages 40-60 years). Researchers found that individuals consuming more BC had a lower body mass index (BMI) and body fat. Data from the NHANES 2001-2006 support this finding. The highest serum concentrations of carotenoids (alpha-carotene, beta-carotene, BC, lutein, and zeaxanthin) were significantly associated with a lower visceral adiposity index and lipid accumulation product. This finding suggests that increasing BC-rich foods in the diet might reduce abdominal fat accumulation, which is beneficial for lipid regulation and the prevention of metabolic disease.
Another study investigated the effects of BC on lean body mass in 750 adults over 60 years of age. Researchers found that low BC consumption was associated with low lean body mass, which reflects poor body composition. The higher the consumption of BC, the better the body composition. Because BC is a potent antioxidant, its effects on body composition may be attributed to its effect on energy metabolism and oxidative stress.
Other Benefits to Women’s Health
Beyond ovarian health, bone health, and body composition, BC consumption has potential roles in vaginal health. Data from the NHANES 2001-2004 found that serum carotenoids (BC included) might help prevent bacterial vaginosis (BV). BV is a common condition caused by microflora dysbiosis in the vagina and is characterized by increased burning and itching along with a fishy odor. However, increased serum BC was inversely associated with BV, suggesting that greater consumption of carotenoids might help reduce the occurrence of BV.
Another benefit observed with BC is that of cancer prevention. Like the chemopreventive effects of BC in ovarian cancer, BC has been associated with inhibiting human cervical carcinoma cells. BC derived from mandarin oranges caused damage and apoptosis to cancerous cells. Additionally, individuals with higher levels of circulating carotenoids had a reduced risk of developing breast cancer. BC contributed to a 10% decreased risk of developing cancer, whereas alpha-carotene and beta-carotene were associated with 22% and 4% reduced risk, respectively. In time, researchers may discover additional benefits of BC for women’s health.
Food Sources of BC & Tips for Optimizing BC in Foods
BC is found in orange plant foods. The recommended amount of BC is 400 micrograms per day, which can easily be achieved by eating orange-pigmented foods.
The foods highest in BC are:
- Butternut squash (cooked): 6,388 micrograms per 1 cup
- Butternut squash (raw): 4,859 micrograms per 1 cup
- Persimmon: 2,431 micrograms per 1 fruit, 2.5” diameter
- Papaya: 854 micrograms per 1 cup
- Tangerines: 794 micrograms per 1 cup
While raw butternut squash also contains high amounts of BC, most people won’t enjoy raw squash! Plus, cooking helps with the bioavailability of this fat-soluble carotenoid. To help further the absorption of BC, individuals should add fats like ghee, butter, extra-virgin olive oil, or coconut oil/milk to cooked squash.
Conclusions and Final Thoughts
BC may support ovarian function, bone health, body composition, and other factors in women’s health. More long-term research on BC is required to understand the full spectrum of health effects. Many of the existing studies investigate BC alongside other carotenoids, making it difficult to definitively identify BC as the primary contributor to the observed benefits.
Orange-colored plant foods are an excellent source of BC, which may support a variety of factors in women’s health. However, because BC converts to vitamin A in the body, it’s important to remember not to consume excessive amounts of vitamin A, which can accumulate in tissues and the liver.
As always, talk to a doctor, nutritionist, or dietician before making any diet or lifestyle changes for personal options based on individual circumstances. While BC is not associated with an increased risk of developing lung cancer in smokers like beta-carotene, many orange-colored foods contain multiple carotenoids. Therefore, they may be contraindicated in certain medical conditions and medication use.
